Muslim Stoneware

Stoneware is a vitreous or semi-vitreous ceramic ware with a fine texture. Stoneware is made from clay that is then fired in a kiln, whether by an artisan to make homeware, or in an industrial kiln for mass-produced or specialty products. It is made primarily from non-refractory fire clay

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Understanding Islam’s core teachings

Islam is at once a religion (din), a community (ummah), and a civilization (hadarah; tamaddun). In all three senses, Islam is a source of unique perspectives on relations between science, technology, spirituality, and ethics. As a religion, Islam upholds knowledge as the key to both individual and societal salvation. With the idea of unity of reality and knowledge as a guiding principle it refuses to entertain any distinction between the religious and the secular in the realm of knowledge. Science and technology are as relevant as the so-called religious sciences to the human pursuit of the divine.

As a community founded on the idea of the Prophet Muhammad as the last in the long series of law-givers God has sent to humankind, Islam stresses on the Divine Law (al-Shari’ah) contained in the Qur’an as the most important source of ethics to guide human actions in all sectors of personal and public life and as the most visible expression of Muslim cultural identity. This Law is generally viewed as not only all-embracing in the scope of its applications but also as dynamic enough to be adaptable to the changing needs of space and time. Science and technology are to be regulated by ethics embodied in this Law.

As a civilization, Islam seeks to promote the interests of all humanity by standing up for the perspectives of universalism, the common good and inter-faith understanding. As so many of Islam’s thinkers have asserted over the centuries science and technology are the most powerful and the most enduring universal elements in human civilization and should be pursued for the sake of our common good and inter-faith peace. Given Islam’s emphasis on universalism, the common good and inter-faith understanding, it is not surprising that it was in the Islamic civilization that we first find a multi-religious and multi-cultural collaborative research in science and technology.

We now proceed to discuss each of these three dimensions of Islam in detail. Much has been said about the religion of Islam as a “complete way of life” and as a way of doing things. But relatively little has been said about Islam as a religion of knowledge. It is this dimension of Islam that needs to be presented in its breadths and depths to the contemporary world. Through a correct understanding of this dimension of Islam we would be able to understand better Islam’s attitudes toward science and technology.

The term for ‘religion of knowledge’ is not found in the Qur’an. However, there is a verse in which the Qur’an describes Islam as ‘the religion of truth’ (din al-haqq). Says the Qur’an: “It is He Who has sent His messenger with guidance and the religion of truth (din al-haqq) that he may proclaim it over all religion even though the pagans may detest it.” The position of Islam as the religion of truth would imply that it is also a religion of knowledge. Philosophically speaking, truth implies knowledge. Human knowledge is possible because there are objective truths and realities that man can know through his cognitive powers. Otherwise, no human knowledge would be possible. To be in possession of truths is to have knowledge of all kinds of things.

We may advance many other arguments in support of the idea of Islam as the religion of knowledge. Here below we mention only eight more of these arguments:

[1] The Qur’an makes knowledge the criterion of superiority of man over all other creatures, including the angels. In the passage on God’s appointment of Adam as His vicegerent (khalifah) on the planet Earth, it is stated that the angels were told of the fact that God has taught Adam the names of all things, which many commentators of the Qur’an have understood as meaning ‘the natures of all things.’ It was upon their realization of the superiority of Adam in knowledge that the angels bowed down to him.
[2] The five verses contained in the maiden revelation to the Prophet Muhammad in Mecca concern knowledge. One could say that these verses sum up the traditional Islamic view of reality and knowledge. Man should pursue knowledge (through reading) in the Name of God, which we understand to mean in its profoundest sense as ‘seeking knowledge with a full awareness of the Divine Reality.’ We human beings should always be conscious of God when pursuing knowledge. It is on the basis of our knowledge of God that we should acquire knowledge of everything else. From the Islamic point of view, therefore, science needs a context. The ontological context of science in Islam is the affirmation of Divine Reality, which is contrary to the ontological belief of modern science. Two types of knowledge are specifically mentioned in these verses. One is knowledge of God, the other knowledge of man.

God is introduced in the verses as Lord (rabb) who created (khalaqa) man and taught (‘allama) him knowledge and as the Most Bountiful (al-akram). Through these Divine Attributes and Acts revelation introduced us to knowledge of Divine Reality. Man is depicted as a creature of lowly origin as he was created from a clot of congealed blood, but who emerged to become a sentient being thanks to the intellect-reason (as symbolized by the Pen) God has given him. God is humanity’s best teacher and the best human instrument of knowledge is the intellect. Clearly we see in these verses the Qur’an’s first illustration of the unity of science and spiritual knowledge.

[3] In many verses of the Qur’an, man is commanded to make use in the wisest manner of all the instruments of knowledge that God has given him, namely his five physical senses, intellect-reason (‘aql), heart (qalb) and his faculty of understanding (fu’ad). Man is reminded to be thankful to God for all the instruments of knowledge in his possession.
[4] According to the Prophet Muhammad, knowledge (‘ilm) is the lost property of a Muslim. Wherever he finds it, he should take it. In another hadith, the Prophet similarly speaks of wisdom (hikmah) as the lost property of a believer (mu’min). Likewise, wherever he finds it he should take it.
[5] The Prophet reminded the Muslims that seeking knowledge is obligatory upon them, both males and females.
[6] Of all the sacred scriptures of the world the Qur’an mentions knowledge the most often. The word ‘ilm (in its various derivative forms), which refers to both divine and human attributes, is mentioned more than 750 times in the Qur’an. Then there are words related to ma’rifah and hikmah which also convey the meaning of certain types or forms of knowledge. In short, the Qur’an is impregnated with words pertaining to knowledge, thus emphasizing its importance in the teachings of the Book.
[7] The Prophet commanded the Muslims to seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave. He also commanded them to seek knowledge as far away as China.
[8] The Prophet reminded the Muslims that success in life in this world requires knowledge. Likewise, success in life in the hereafter requires knowledge as well.

The above arguments also show that for Muslims, the Qur’an is the most important source of guidance in the domain of knowledge. Muslims believe that the Qur’an contains the principles of all sciences. They also believe that the Qur’an affirms the supreme role of knowledge in ordering human life and thought and delivering success.

In viewing knowledge as the key to human salvation and to human happiness in this world and in the afterlife as alluded to in one of the above arguments, it is important to point to the kind of knowledge that plays this saving function. Obviously not just any kind of knowledge is efficacious enough to play this role. In the view of many traditional Muslim scholars, a knowledge that saves must be sacred in nature. In Islam, however, sacredness of knowledge is not defined in terms of primacy of revelation over reason. Not just revealed knowledge is regarded as sacred. Among Muslim philosophers and scientists in particular there is the conviction that human knowledge acquired through the use of reason could be considered as sacred if it fulfills certain conditions. By “sacred knowledge” they mean knowledge that is related in some way to God, pursued in the Name of God, and used and applied in the Name of God.

As Muslims generally see it, human knowledge, including science, possesses a sacred character since they see God as the ultimate source of all knowledge regardless of whether human beings acquire it empirically or otherwise. Their view finds support in the Qur’an. The Qur’an speaks of God as the All-Knower and the giver of knowledge to human beings through various avenues ranging from physical senses to intellectual reflection, the interpretation of dreams to divine revelation. The Muslim idea of sacred knowledge is also affirmed by the first revelation the Prophet Muhammad received discussed earlier.

In the Islamic view, the core of spiritual knowledge is knowledge of the Divine Reality, which is what al-tawhid is essentially all about. This means that it is knowledge of the Divine Reality that would serve as the spiritual foundation of scientific knowledge. But the question many people ask in connection to this is ‘can we know God?’ Islam is emphatic in acknowledging that God is knowable. It maintains that the ultimate purpose of human knowledge is to know God. This objective is attainable since human knowledge of creation will lead to knowledge of the Divine Reality, which is considered to be the highest form of knowledge possible. Muslims approach the study of different branches of knowledge, including science and technology, with this spiritual objective in mind.

Scientists view their study of the natural world as a form of religious worship, but the lesser objectives of knowledge are duly recognized. Knowledge helps human beings to fulfill their rational and mental needs such as clarity of mind, certitude of thought, and rational explanations of both natural and social phenomena, as well as those material needs that can be met by technology. In the traditional Muslim pursuit of knowledge, the deepest theoretical understanding of things goes hand in hand with an earnest appreciation of their practical utility.

It was the Prophet who inspired Muslims to pursue knowledge of things for both their theoretical and practical considerations. He encouraged his followers to reflect and contemplate natural phenomena pursuant to the Qur’an with a view toward deepening understanding of divine power and wisdom in creation. But the Prophet also compared knowledge that had no practical benefits to a tree without fruit. He often prayed to God seeking protection from “useless knowledge.” On the basis of this tradition, Muslim scholars progressively sought to articulate ideas, concepts, and theories on the broader issue of the ethics of knowledge as activities of knowledge production and applications in the new civilization expanded and became more complex. Major issues included clarifying the meanings of beneficial and harmful knowledge in the perspective of Islamic Law and determining the general criteria for each type of knowledge.

Muslim preoccupation with the knowledge culture took many different forms. One was classification of knowledge, which proved to be a good way of keeping track of the state of knowledge at any given time. Classification of knowledge divided the sciences into thematic groups of well-defined disciplines, and preserved their hierarchy. Traditional Muslim scholars dealt with several systems of classifications, the most popular of which were the classification of knowledge into the naqliy (transmitted) and ‘aqliy (intellectual) categories and into the fard ‘ayn (obligatory to everyone) and fard kifayah (obligatory to society as a whole) types. We will discuss later these two types of obligatory knowledge in connection with scientific and technological knowledge.

The Arab philosopher, al-Kindi (801-873) authored the first Muslim classification of the sciences in the ninth-century. Since then many scholars have devoted considerable effort to expositions of this theme. The last significant work on the subject is the classification written by the Indian theologian Shah Waliallah of Delhi (1703-1762) in the eighteenth century. The importance and popularity of classification of the sciences was evident not only from the large number of books written on the subject but also from the diverse nature of the scholarly community that produced them.

Both Sunni and Shiite theologians, philosophers, scientists, historians, and jurists were represented in this unique enterprise. Such classifications had been particularly useful to the organization of educational curricula. Interestingly, there appeared to be a correlation between the rate of production of classifications of knowledge and the intensity of knowledge expansion. The interest in classifications was at its height during the era when Muslims were the most productive in terms of adding new scientific disciplines to the existing body of human knowledge. After the sixteenth century when intellectual and scientific innovations began to decline in most parts of the Islamic world, work on classifications dropped sharply. The fact that hardly any work has appeared on the subject since the eighteenth century testifies to the reduced importance of the role of knowledge among Muslims in the last one century.

A Muslim classification of knowledge of any period reveals a great deal about the knowledge culture of the period in question, including its characteristics and achievements. Among the things it reveals is whether or not new branches of knowledge have been added since the last classification was written. It is also clear from past classifications that Muslims were concerned with the need for a balanced approach to both theoretical and practical knowledge. In addition, Muslims accord relative importance to each science in the context of human knowledge as a whole. Scholars generally use three criteria to determine the epistemic position of each science in what is traditionally called the hierarchy of knowledge. The criteria are defined in terms of the relative excellence of the objects of study, methods of study, and benefits of study. Some sciences may be viewed as more laudable than others on the basis of one or more of these criteria. The greatest science in light of the three criteria is the science of God or theology in the true sense of the word.

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Mapping the Direction to Makkah

 A Cartographic Perspective

Knowledge of locations and directions using the stars was almost instinctual for Arabs during the pre-Islamic era. Being an illiterate nation, using the pen to record information was very limited and hence the art and science of map-making was almost non-existent. It was not until Islam, that the use of the pen became a necessity of everyday life.

The importance of keeping written records became evident especially when the Muslim Empire expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula. In a very short time the Muslims were able to conquer scientifically more advanced nations such as the Byzantine and Persian empires. Geographical records and maps, inherited from the ancients were translated into the Arabic language and modified to encompass the Islamic vision of the world of geography. Elements of nature such as the wind, the mountains and seas that were previously feared by nations are no longer gods to be worshiped, but rather signs of Allah's creations to be studied.

Geographic information was both descriptive and literal in nature, supported by maps. Mathematical equations that can determine locations of the stars were engraved on mechanical tools such as the astrolabe. Records of the use of spherical trigonometry in geography can be traced back to the ninth century CE (third century AH).1

While Islamic teachings encourage scientific research in general, the second pillar of Islam, that is prayer, demands awareness of time and location. In order to perform the prayer correctly, a person has to pray five times a day, according to specific timings while facing the city of Makkah. The sacred direction (qibla) toward Makkah also influenced other aspects of the Muslim life such as architecture and burial rites. The concept of sacred direction was not new; Jews and Christians used Jerusalem as a geographic center for their religion.2 During the early revelations of Islam, Muslims used Jerusalem for the same purpose as well. The Islamic teaching later changed the sacred direction to Makkah and made it a condition for correct prayer. This drove the Muslims to a higher level of sophistication in solving the problem of determining directions.

Two major approaches to determine the direction to Makkah can be recognized. The first is the folk astronomy (ethnoastronomy) where the scholars of the sacred law of Islam (fuqaha’) have a major influence on interpretation and are related more toward the spiritual aspect of the problems. The second is the mathematical method where a high level of calculations and technical solutions were applied by professional scientists.3

This paper argues that the gap between the two approaches is not large and their historical evidence shows an actual merging of the two approaches. Such evidence is found in many maps and calculations of Islamic literature throughout history. The two seventeenth-century Iranian maps introduced by David A. King (1999) of the Old World (discovered in 1989 and 1995) with Makkah at the center, as well as similar maps found in (Harley and Woods 1992) are good examples. Qibla tables and mechanical devices such as the astrolabe are other examples.4 The vast number of mosques built by early Muslim immigrants in the Americas with the correct direction to Makkah is a very good indication that the difference between the two approaches is minimal and that the confusion over the correct direction is very limited.5

In modern times, with the implementation of computer technology, producing maps in various projections becomes a matter of choice. Once geographic information is recorded in digital form, maps can be produced in any desired projection. While the same technology enhances our geographical knowledge by introducing it in a visual form, for the layman it can be confusing when it comes to directions. Modern maps, made from a western perspective, do not necessarily provide or display information such as great circles centered on Makkah. For a casual map user, the direction to Makkah from the United States on a Mercator projection map seems to be to the southeast. This confusion extended in some cases to professional geographers who, when asked for directions to Makkah, used the thumb line as a solution.6 Part of the problem is due to a lack of scientific understanding of the Islamic teaching regarding the prayer direction.7

In a previous paper,8 the author introduced the concept of the prayer circle (PC) and prayer direction circle (PDC) system to help simplify the problem. This paper combines these concepts with spherical triangulation and cartographic design to offer a visual solution to the problem by using Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
by: Ahmad S. Massasati
Source: http://i-epistemology.net/science-a-technology/700-mapping-the-direction-to-makkah-a-cartographic-perspective.html

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